OUTLINE

AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS

• American Society of Agronomy. 1995
  

II. BENEFICIAL CO-UTILIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL, MUNICIPAL, AND INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS

• Brown, S., J.S. Angle, and L. Jacobs., editors. 1998.
• McConnell, L.L., editor. 1997
  

COAL MINING

COAL COMBUSTION BY-PRODUCTS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING-INTERACTIVE FORUM

• Chugh, Y.P., B.M. Sangunett, and K.C. Vories. 1996
  

MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION

I. MANAGEMENT OF HIGH SULFUR COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUES: ISSUES AND PRACTICES

• Chugh, Y.P. and G.A. Beasley. 1994

II. PROCEEDINGS: 10TH ANNUAL ASH USE SYMPOSIUM

• American Coal Ash Association. 1993
  

III. PROCEEDINGS: 1997 INTERNATIONAL ASH UTILIZATION SYMPOSIUM: PUSHING THE ENVELOPE.

• University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research. 1997.

IV. PROCEEDINGS: 1999 INTERNATIONAL ASH UTILIZATION SYMPOSIUM

• University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research. 1999.

IV. PROCEEDINGS: 13TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON USE AND MANAGEMENT OF COAL COMBUSTION PRODUCTS (CCPs)

• American Coal Ash Association and EPRI.  1999
  

ABSTRACT

American Coal Ash Association and EPRI. 1999. Proceedings: 13th Annual Symposium on Use and Management of Coal Combustion Products (CCPs).  3 Vols. Electric Power Research Institute. Palo Alto, CA

The objective of the 1999 International Symposium on the Management and Use of Coal Combustion Products, the 13th in a series since 1967, is to publicize innovations in coal ash use technology. 

The three-volume publication contains 91 papers, presented in 15 sessions during the 1999 event.  Volume 1 contains papers related to waste aggregates, agricultural uses, beneficiation/quality, and building products.  Volume 2 covers the growing market in concrete, environmental performance, FGD material, filler applications, flowable fill, and international perspectives.  Volume 3 contains papers on mining applications, regional and State perspectives, stabilized road bases, structural fills, and vitrification/solidification.

1.    Daniels, W.L., M. Beck, R. Li, and B. Stewart.  Loading Rate Guidance for Coal Fly Ash as a Soil Amendment in Virginia. Paper 10. ABSTRACT: Two greenhouse pot studies were conducted to determine the maximum beneficial loading rates for fly ash for soybeans, tall fescue, and birdsfoot trefoil on mine spoil, acidic coal refuse, and a sandy natural topsoil.  In the first experiment, alkaline (pH 8.5) fly ash was bulk-blended with each soil at 0, 10, 20, and 30% w/w.  The fly ash was a very effective liming agent, but limited plant growth due to high salt and soluble boron (B) levels.  At 10% fly ash, electrical conductance (EC) was less than 2.0 mmho/cm in all soils.  Soybeans exhibited B toxicity at the 10 % addition rate.  Fly ash significantly reduced soybean dry matter yield by 10%, trefoil growth at 20%, and tall fescue at 30% application rates.  Species response did vary by soil media, however, particularly in the coal waste due to positive liming and water retention effects.  A second trial was subsequently implemented to separate salt and B effects and establish toxicity thresholds.  A similar design was employed, but with two ashes with differing B/EC levels and five lower application rates (0,1,3,5, and 10%).  Plant response to ash additions was very crop and substrate specific, with all plant materials suppressed at 3% to 6% fly ash.  Bulk soil EC, rather than B, was strongly correlated with plant yield, and should be used for developing regulatory guidance, with a suggested ceiling of 2 mmhos/cm, after bulk incorporation.  For high EC fly ash materials applied to salt-sensitive crops such as soybeans, loading rates for ash materials similar to those tested here should be limited to 65 Mb/ha (30 tons/Acre) unless salts are allowed to leach prior to planting.  Higher rates are appropriate on mined lands where more salt-tolerant species are employed and/or salts are allowed to leach before revegetation.

2.    Aljoe, W.W. Hydrologic and Water Quality Changes Resulting from Injection of CCB Grout into a Maryland Underground Mine. Paper 66. ABSTRACT: In October and November 1996, about 5,600 cubic yards of grout composed entirely of CCB's (fly ash, FBC ash, and FBC sludge) were injected via 38 vertical boreholes into a small abandoned underground coal mine near Friendsville, MD.  Due to the existence of void spaces that were not anticipated prior to grouting, the grout was not sufficient to fill all of the voids in the mine.  As a result, a  mine pool of undetermined size still exists within the mine voids.  The mine pool elevation is approximately the same as it was before grouting, and the mine discharge still emerges as two distinct flow streams from a single collapsed entry at the downdip end of the workings.  The upper discharge, which flows over the top of the collapsed material, is less acidic, but is the largest flow source during most of the year.  The lower discharge, which flows from the base of the collapsed entry, is much more acidic, but flows at only about 1 gallon per minute.  Both discharges were extremely acidic in the first few months after injection:  this was attributed to the flushing of pyrite oxidation products that had been stored within the mine but were mobilized by the change in internal flow paths caused by the grouting.  Within 6 months after injection, concentrations of acidic contaminants at both discharges had returned to the pre-grouting levels.   Concentrations of calcium, sulfate, sodium, chloride, and potassium remained above pre-grouting, reflecting some continued dissolution and flushing of grout materials.

3.    Branam, T., M. Ennis, and R. Smith.   Water-Quality Monitoring at an Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation Site Amended with Fly Ash and Fixated Scrubber Sludge.  Paper 71.  ABSTRACT: A 4 year monitoring project begun in 1995 provides information from the first use of CCB's in the reclamation of abandoned mine lands in Indiana.  The Indiana DNR, Division of Reclamation, is interested in demonstrating the use of fixated scrubber sludge as cap and bottom ash as structural fill material.  Water-quality monitoring at the site was initiated one year before reclamation activity began and has continued on a quarterly basis through more than one year of post-reclamation monitoring.  The two primary objectives of the monitoring program are to determine the effectiveness of acid mine drainage abatement and to monitor the leaching of solutes from the CCB's.  Water from several monitoring wells screened at different depths and in different materials, and several surface discharge points have been sampled for pH, specific conductivity, alkalinity, acidity, iron species, major cations, major anions, the inorganic priority pollutants, and other selected minor and trace elements.

    Post reclamation surface drainage leaving the site has changed from acidic to alkaline.  At present the water in surface drainage contains decreased concentrations of iron and aluminum and increased concentrations of calcium.   Monitoring wells screened in CCB's and at interfaces between CCB's and non-CCB fill material show signs of improving overall ground-water quality due to altered hydrology and reaction with CCB's.  Significantly increased concentrations of boron, molybdenum, potassium, and chloride were found in monitoring wells screened in or near CCB's.   However, at the site outlet the concentration of boron has not increased, and potassium, chloride, and molybdenum have increased only slightly.

4.    Spear, A.D. and S.F. Putrich.  Using Stabilized Fly Ash to Neutralize Acidic Coal Pile and Mill Rejects Leachate.  Paper 72.  ABSTRACT:  PP&L, Inc. with the assistance of Woodward-Clyde Consultants, elected to investigate the ability of stabilized fly ash to act as a semi-pervious liner which also has the benefit of being able to neutralize acidic leachate from coal piles or mill rejects.  This paper will discuss the research, analyses, and design of a coal pile liner system and a series of coal mill rejects disposal cells using Type F fly ash stabilized with lime or cement.  Each of these projects saved PP&L, Inc. millions of dollars in disposal and material costs.  The basic concept is to use the stabilized ash to limit and neutralize any acidic leachate generated by the coal pile or the pyritic coal mill rejects.  Liner specifications were developed based on long-term permeability testing and observations by PP&L, Inc., during liner construction.  Neutralization liners are being designed to provide greater than 70 years of protection.  The proprietary design was approved by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as an alternative to the traditional flexible membrane liner.  This concept can be used by coal burning utilities, coal mines, or any industry that generates an acidic leachate.

5.    Stehouwer, R., D. Kost, J. Vimmerstedt, and J. Beeghly.   Reclamation of Acidic Coal Mines Spoils Using Flue Gas Desulfurization By-Product and Sewage Sludge.  Paper 76.  ABSTRACT: Reclamation of acidic abandoned mine spoils by amendment with by-product materials may provide a low-cost alternative to covering with borrow soil.  This 3 year field study was undertaken to determine if spoil amendment with two types of wet flue gas desulfurization by-products (FGD) and sewage sludge could achieve revegetation of toxic spoils, and to determine the effects these materials have on spoil, water, and  vegetation quality.  Establishment and growth of vegetative cover on spoil amended with FGD or with sewage sludge was similar to that on spoil covered with borrow soil.  Combined amendment with FGD and sewage sludge, however, allowed more rapid establishment and a more vigorously growing sward than was achieved with borrow soil cover.  Apparently the combination of slow-release nutrients and organic matter from the sewage sludge and alkalinity, Ca, and Mg from the FGD worked together to enhance growth relative to either material alone.  Decreases in subsoil exchangeable Al and Fe, and in vadose water acidity with combined FGD and sewage sludge provided some indication that combined application of these by-products enhanced the ability of FGD to ameliorate subsoil toxicity.  Trace element concentration in surface runoff and vadose zone water were similar among all treatments except that B was increased by one type of FGD.  The major treatment effects on water quality were that the sewage sludge produced water with lower pH than all other treatments, and all treatments with FGD materials produced water with increased salt loading (primarily Ca and S) relative to the borrow soil treatment.  Combined amendment with FGD and sewage sludge was found to be a highly effective method for revegetation of toxic mine spoil, with minimal adverse effects on soil, plant, or water quality.

Ordering Info: American Coal Ash Association, 2760 Eisenhower Ave., Suite 304, Alexandria, VA 22134-4553; (703) 317-2400, FAX (703) 317-2409; Website www.acaa-usa.org/pubs/publist.htm
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debra McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

American Coal Ash Association. 1993. Proceedings: 10th Annual Ash Use Symposium. Volume 1: High Volume Uses/Concrete Applications. Volume 2: Ash Use R&D and Clean Coal By-Products. Electric Power Research Institute. Palo Alto, CA.

The objective of the 1993 International Coal Ash Use Symposium, the tenth in a series since 1967, is to publicize innovations in coal ash technology. These symposia support the mission of the American Coal Ash Association (ACAA) to promote coal ash use in a variety of markets through technology base for coal ash as a technically appropriate, commercially competitive, environmentally sound and socially beneficial alternative to virgin and manufactured engineering materials.

The two volume publication contains 82 papers arranged in 14 sections which include: waste solidification and stabilization; aggregate; agriculture; structural fill; mine reclamation; aquatic uses; environmental considerations; concrete and flowable fill; base stabilization; clean coal by-products; international and regional perspectives; research and development; fillers in plastic and aluminum; and manufactured products--marketable gypsum, masonry blocks, cast in-situ and precast houses, bricks, mineral wool fibers, and ready-mixed concrete 
Ordering Info: American Coal Ash Association, 2760 Eisenhower Ave., Suite 304, Alexandria, VA 22134-4553; (703) 317-2400, FAX (703) 317-2409; Website www.acaa-usa.org/pubs/publist.htm
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

American Society of Agronomy. 1995. Agricultural Utilization of Urban and Industrial By-Products. Symposium Proceedings November 7-12, 1993 in Cincinnati, Ohio. 295 pp.

The goal of this publication is to enhance public awareness of how agriculture can help solve problems associated with the by-products of our increasingly urban and industrial society. Developing and encouraging the adoption of soil and crop management strategies that utilize urban and industrial by-products as resources rather than considering them wastes provides many opportunities for building bridges between agricultural and urban communities. However, as pointed out in Chapter 1, building these bridges requires credible scientific research on benefits, hazards, and management of these materials, coupled with the development of an informed base of support within the agricultural community. Regulatory and programmatic responsibilities of the US EPA and contributions of nonprofit organizations such as the Composting Council toward development of best management strategies for using urban and industrial by-products are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. The "Farm Co-composting Project" initiated by the Rodale Research Center provides a specific example in Chapter 4 of the types of bridges that can and must be built between rural and urban partners.

Chapters 5-10 focus on properties and potential uses for industrial by-products associated with coal combustion. Basic mineralogy of these materials, their effect on soil physical and chemical properties, the ability to provide nutrients to horticultural and agronomic plants, and their potential environmental impact are reviewed and discussed.

The use of noncomposted organic materials including paper products, animal manures, and sawmill by-products is discussed in Chapters 11-13. Long-term effects of applying municipal sewage sludge to forest and other degraded soils is discussed in the final chapter.
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

Brown, S., J.S. Angle, and L. Jacobs. (Eds), 1998. Beneficial Co-Utilization of Agricultural, Municipal, and Industrial By-Products. Proceedings of Beltsville Symposium XXII held on May 4-8, 1997, at Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA. 430 pp.

Contains the proceedings of the Beltsville Symposium XXII as a collection of 37 papers in the five categories of: (1) Basis for Co-Utilization of Residuals; (2) Potential Uses for Co-Utilization Products; (3)Scientific and Managerial Considerations; (4) Specific Case Studies; and (5) Research Reports.

Co-Utilization or blending of residuals offers a unique opportunity to develop products with particular characteristics that are able to target specific customer needs.  The very notion of deliberately blending by-products suggests that the recycling and beneficial reuse industries are taking a quantitative step forward towards developing products rather than simply reusing residuals.  At the same time that this step provides unique opportunities, it also presents unique challenges.  The science associated with the beneficial use of one product may not apply when that product is mixed with another residual.  Blending of materials may alter the chemistry of the components of the mixture.  This may offer additional benefits, as in the case of disease suppression in composts, or present unexpected problems, as the use of lime-stabilized biosolids has done in Maryland.

1. Ritchey,K.D., M.A. Elrashidi, R.B. Clark, and V.C. Baligar. Potential for Utilizing Coal Combustion residues in Co-Utilization Products. Pages 139-147.   ABSTRACT: Approximately 90 million tons of coal combustion by-products are produced annually in the U.S., consisting of 54 million tons of fly ash (solid particles removed from smoke), 15 million tons of bottom ash, 3 million tons of boiler slag, and 20 million tons of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) material.  Markets for boiler slag are well developed, but only 33% of bottom ash, 25% of fly ash, and 8% of FGD material are beneficially used.  Numerous opportunities for agricultural use of these materials have been identified.  Fly ash (a very fine, relatively inert, dry powder consisting mostly of Fe, Al, Ca, Si, and O) provides a means of reducing water contents of wet mixtures, and can also provide B and other micronutrients to plants.  Fly ash is currently being used to improve the texture and water-holding capacity of potting mixtures and artificial soils.  Class C fly ash (produced from burning coal from Western US) can have a calcium carbonate equivalency of up to 50% and may serve as a substitute for aglime.  Mixtures of fly ash and sewage sludge produced an effective medium for growth of apple trees in northern West Virginia, and mixtures of fly ash and municipal compost produced an acceptable soil substitute for nurseries in Ohio.   FGD materials contain mainly calcium sulfate or calcium sulfite, as well as some unreacted alkaline sorbent.  These products can be used as substitutes for aglime, as an insolubilizer for phosphorus from animal manure in environmentally sensitive watersheds where excess P occurs in run-off, as a source of Ca and S in potting mixtures, as an anti-sodicity agent for displacing Na from certain degraded mine lands being treated with sawmill by-products, and to improve subsoil root growth enhancement properties of surface-applied amendments.  Fluidized bed combustion materials, which contain both ash and FGD components, can be used for similar purposes.
2. Norton, L.D., R. Altieri, and C. Johnston. Co-Utilization of By-Products for Creation of Synthetic Soil. Pages 163-174.  ABSTRACT: Agriculture has been practiced in the US for hundreds of years.  The general trend has been to produce foodstuffs and send them to towns an villages where most of the population lives.   As a largely agrarian society, concentration of wastes was not a big problem because much of the wastes produced were applied back to the land where it came.   With the population shift from farms to large cities, the waste streams became larger and more concentrated.  Disposal of these wastes was generally in landfills.   Today, with the increased cost of landfilling, less landfill space and regulations restricting what can be filled, land application of many waste streams is becoming more economically desirable.  Also, given the fact that many of these waste streams contain beneficial organic materials and nutrients that came from the soil to begin with, it may be beneficial to amend soil with them to improve soil organic carbon content, nutrient status, and control erosion.  The objective of this study was to develop a methodology to create a synthetic soil from waste materials.  We studied two waste streams from a coal-fired power plant and a pharmaceutical operation in order to develop a co-blending technology.  The method consisted of mixing the hot ashes with wet organic rich industrial sludge (ORIS).  Different combinations of mixtures were studied to determine the optimum ratio of wastes to provide a soil-like material.  By combining the ORIS with fly and bottom ash from a fluidized bed combustion, we were able to reduce the adverse properties of both materials and create a soil-like material with favorable properties.  The ash provided a structural backbone for the ORIS and the ORIS served as a proton donor to reduce the alkalinity of the ashes.  The impact of this research is that two waste materials with adverse properties can be combined such that they form a beneficial material with soil-like properties that can be used as a synthetic soil for soil amending to improve organic matter content and potentially control erosion.
3. Franciosi, F., T. Bilderback, B. Lord, and L. Bennett. Production and Marketing of Potting and Landscape Soils containing coal combustion By-Product.   Pages 305-314.  ABSTRACT:  Gardening is the number one leisure time activity in the US.  During 1994, Americans spent over $25 billion on gardening and landscaping.  In North Carolina alone, potting and landscaping soils are consumed at a rate of 2 million cubic yards each year.  Coal combustion By-Products (CCB's) can be used in the production of superb quality, compost based, synthetic soils.  The process involves the composting of source separated organic materials that are by-products generated by agricultural and industrial operations.  These include livestock operations, cotton gins, wood manufacturing plants, and land clearing debris.  This natural biological process is optimized by using proven scientific techniques and equipment.  CCB's can be used in many ways to improve the characteristics of these compost based soils.  Fly ash may be used as a replacement for sand, providing water holding capacity as well as improved drainage calcium and sulfur which are required by certain plant types.  These and other potential benefits from CCB usage will be discussed.  This paper will present  scientific demonstrating the advantages of compost/CCB blend soils in comparison to conventional potting and landscape soils.   This paper will also describe some of the challenges in gaining regulatory approvals and market acceptance and the strategies employed to overcome these barriers.

Ordering Info: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Norwell, MA 02061
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

Chugh, Y.P., B.M. Sangunett, and K.C. Vories. (Eds), 1996. Coal Combustion By-Products Associated with Coal Mining-Interactive Forum. Proceedings of Forum at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale October 29-31, 1996. 304 pp.

Summaries of 28 technical topic areas were presented by speakers with CCB expertise in the areas of: (1) Physical and Chemical Characterization; (2) Site Characterization; (3) Regulatory Requirements; (4) Design/Engineering/Planning; (5) Environment: Land and Water; (6) Monitoring and Evaluation; and (7) Case Studies. Discussions held at each session and workgroup evaluations are also presented.
Ordering Info: Kimery Vories, Office of Surface Mining, 501 Belle St., Alton, IL 62002
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

Chugh, Y.P. and G. A. Beasley. 1994. Management of High Sulfur Coal Combustion Residues: Issues and Practices. Conference Proceedings at Springfield, IL April 5-7, 1994. 288 pp.

26 talks were presented in the areas of: (1) Overview; (2) Characterization; (3) Environmental Impacts; and (4) Material Handling and Utilization.
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

McConnell, L.L., editor. 1997. Program and Abstracts, Beneficial Co-Utilization of Agricultural, Municipal, and Industrial By-Products, May 4-8, 1997, Beltsville Symposium XXII, U.S. Dept. Of Agric., Agric. Res. Serv., Beltsville, MD.

The symposium consisted of six sessions on topics including: (1) current status and future challenges; (2) agronomy of beneficial co-utilization; (3) environmental considerations; (4) horticultural utilization; (5) co-utilization product uses; and (6) co-utilization products.
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research. 1999. 1999 International Ash Utilization Symposium: Materials for the next millennium. October 18-20, 1999. Lexington, KY.

The symposium consisted of 101 papers in 14 sessions on topics including: (1) Concrete & Cement; (2) Posters; (3) Economic Development Issues; (4) Mercury/Health Aspects of Fly Ash; (5) Chemistry & Mineralogy; (6) Construction & Evolution of CCPs; (7) Commercial Ash Processing - A User's Perspective; (8) Haulback/Remediation; (9) Forest/Soil Reclamation; (10) Environmental Aspects; (11) Institutional & Government Programs; (12) New Products; (13) Processing; (14) Durability Issues/Ettringite.   Articles of potential interest to the mining community included:

1. Aljoe, W. W. and S. Renninger. CCB's in Mining Applications - An Overview of Projects Sponsored by DOE-FETC.  ABSTRACT: The onset of utility deregulation now makes it apparent that coal combustion by-products (CCB) utilization is one key area that may help utilities better manage their available resources.   Because current utilization rates of CCB's are relatively low, the U.S. Department of Energy is actively co-sponsoring a variety of CCB utilization projects, along with projects that seek to characterize the by-products resulting from newly-developed technologies for coal combustion, gasification, or flue gas cleanup.  Mining applications represent a potential high-volume market for CCB's, with beneficial uses that include the development of CCB-based construction materials for use in mining and the selective backfilling of CCB's to increase underground coal mine extraction rates.   The goal of these projects is to demonstrate that CCB utilization in mines represents more than just a cheaper alternative to landfill disposal.
2. Bhumbla, D.K., J.M. Gorman, and J.C. Sencindiver. Fly Ash-Sawdust Mixtures for Minesoil Reclamation. ABSTRACT: Fly ash utilization has become an increasing concern for the electric power generating industry due to a recent trend in enactment of stricter regulations governing the disposal-land filling of industrial wastes.   Higher disposal cost associated with tighter regulations has fueled research into alternative uses for fly ash such as land application.  Fly ash has been used successfully as an amendment for acid minesoils, but heavy applications may be prohibitive due to toxic levels of boron in fly ash.  Previous studies have found that soil organic matter is correlated with boron sorption-availability in soils.  A greenhouse-incubation study was initiated using various mixtures of fly ash and sawdust as an amendment to an acidic minesoil.  Application of sawdust to minesoil-fly ash mixtures resulted in improved plant dry matter yields and reduction in soluble and extractable boron due to adsorption on decomposition products of sawdust.  Results showed that sawdust effectively reduced boron availability in fly ash thus enabling larger fly ash application rates without yield reductions.  Based on the greenhouse-incubation results, field plots were established to examine sawdust's effects on fly ash aggregation, infiltration rate, and erodibility.  One concern with sawdust applications is the immobilization of available soil nitrogen and phosphorus due to the high carbon to nitrogen and high carbon to phosphorus ratios in sawdust.  This may necessitate use of a supplemental slow release nitrogen and phosphorus source such as sewage sludge or compost in the amendment mixture.
3. Cortland, F.E. and J.C. Hower. Characteristics of Kentucky Coal and Coal Ash. ABSTRACT:  The Clean Air Act of 1990 (Title III and IV) have placed increasingly stringent limits on the type and grade of coal that can be mined and marketed.  Because of these limitations, it has become increasingly important to understand the quality characteristics of coal in Kentucky from a utilization perspective, both on a geographic and stratigraphic basis. Coal quality parameters are also important in predicting the tendency of a coal to form excessive slagging and/or fouling deposits in combustion furnaces.  Furthermore, data on the composition of coal ash has important ramifications from a disposal standpoint.  This paper will focus on the quality characteristics of Kentucky coal, and the distribution of selected major and minor elements in the post-combustion ash by-product.  
   Coal in Kentucky is mined in the eastern and western part of the State.  In eastern Kentucky, much of the resource occurs as compliance (less than 1.2 lbs SO2/million BTU), or near-compliance coal (less than 2 lbs SO2/million BTU).  In contrast, coal in western Kentucky has a medium to high sulfur content (typically greater than 5 lbs SO2/million BTU).  In both areas, quality varies both geographically and stratigraphically.  Ash by-products of eastern Kentucky coals are typically enriched SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2 (so-called acids, or glass formers) and depleted in Fe2O3, CaO and SO3 (so-called bases, or fluxing agents) when compared with western Kentucky coal.   Likewise, eastern Kentucky coals typically contain higher amounts of chlorine, cobalt, and thorium than do western Kentucky coals, which are enriched in cadmium, manganese, and lead.
4. Daniels, W.L. B.R. Stewart, and L. Zelazny. Characterization of Acid Leaching Reactions in Coal Refuse/Coal Fly Ash Bulk Blends.   ABSTRACT:   The exclusion of coal fly ash from regulation as a hazardous waste has led to increased interest in returning ash to the coalfields for co-disposal.  A column study used coal refuse with high potential acidity (4% total S), and two ashes with varying levels of alkalinity.  The ashes were bulk blended at varying ratios(0,5,10,20 and 33%) with the coal refuse and packed into replicated (n=3) leaching columns.  The columns were run unsaturated, and received 2.5 cm of simulated rainfall per week for 165 weeks.  The unamended refuse acidified rapidly, producing acidic (pH 1.7) leachates, high in dissolved metals.  Columns treated with the low alkalinity ash acidified sequentially over time, releasing significant levels of Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu to the eluted leachates.  Treatments blended with 20 and 33% of the more alkaline ash produced alkaline (pH greater than 8.4) leachates with low metal levels.  Examination of solid phase materials from the columns indicated that pyrite oxidation was occurring in all treatments, and a highly significant linear regression was developed to predict acid breakthrough over time based on total alkaline loading to the system.  Our data clearly indicated that ash alkalinity and refuse potential acidity must be balanced to insure long term water quality protection from ash/refuse co-disposal practices and that the breakthrough of acidic leachates may take greater than 5 years under certain co-disposal scenarios modeled in our study.
5. Haefner, R.J.  A Sulfur Isotope Mixing Model to Trace Leachate From Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion By-Products in an Abandoned Coal Mine Setting.   ABSTRACT:  Approximately 125 tons per acre of pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) by-products were applied to a seven-acre abandoned coal mine in eastern Ohio during reclamation.  The purpose of the application was to help raise pH and allow for reestablishment of vegetation.  to trace leachate derived from the by-product, sulfur isotope ratios were measured from solid-phase materials and water samples.  The sulfur isotope value for the PFBC by-product ranged from +4.6 to +4.8 per mil.  Spoil samples collected from outside the application area had isotope signatures representative of the PFBC by-product whereas similar waters from outside the application area had signatures representative of the spoil.  A sulfur isotope mixing model indicated that up to 75 percent of the sulfate in application area unsaturated-zone waters was derived from PFBC by-product leachate.  Sulfate concentrations in ground water increased after reclamation; however, the sulfur-isotope data indicated that only small amounts of sulfate in ground water were derived from leaching of the PFBC by-product.  Therefore, increase of dissolved sulfate in the ground-water system was due to reclamation activities, not addition of the PFBC by-product.
6. Lamminen, M.  Acid Mine Drainage Abatement Using Flue Gas Desulfurizaton By-Product: Water Quality Aspects.  ABSTRACT:  Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), is a serious problem in States where coal mining is part of the local economy.   AMD forms when water in abandoned mine voids react with oxygen and iron pyrite producing sulfates as well as acid.  This results in a significant decrease in pH of receiving waters as well as an increased capacity for mobilizing metals.  In this study, the potential of using flue gas desulfurization (FGD) by-product to remediate environmental problems posed by acid mine drainage was investigated.  The primary goals of this project were to utilize an FGD grout to: (1) seal mine openings and decrease the flow of AMD leaving mine voids, and (2) to improve the water quality of AMD entering receiving waters.  To investigate the potential for using FGD in this dual-purpose role, American Electric Power (AEP) in conjunction with Ohio State University injected and sealed the Roberts-Dawson mine site near Coshocton, Ohio with 23,000 cubic yards of FGD grout.  Since grouting was completed, a decrease in flow from the mine voids, along with a decrease in the net flux of acidic components and metals, to receiving waters has been observed.  No increase in pH has been observed, however, which indicates the quality of AMD has not improved to any significant extent.  These results suggest that FGD may be a viable option for reducing the flow and the net flux of acid at abandoned mine sites, however, additional water quality monitoring is required to more fully elucidate the effectiveness of this approach.
7. Meiers, R.J. C.H.M.M. and D. B. Barnard, Esq. Recent Regulatory Developments Impacting Mine Backfill Management Practices of Coal Combustion Products.   ABSTRACT:  The management of coal combustion products (CCP) in surface coal mining activities has come under regulatory scrutiny in recent years.  Most States with Federally authorized programs implement the management requirements of CCP in coal mines through operating permits issued under policy guidelines and not regulations.   In the State of Indiana, environmental groups have continued to litigate permit after permit issued by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) under the policy guidelines developed by the  IDNR.  The Governor's office in Indiana has responded to the public objection and has initiated a rulemaking process in an effort to end the continual litigation of permits.  At the Federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in Washington, D.C. has included the management of CCP in mine related activities in their review of management options related to the second phase of the Bevil amendment regulatory determination on CCP.  This paper will address the recent regulatory developments and discuss the future impacts on the management of CCP in mining activities, both for disposal and utilization.  The issues that will be discussed include CCP characterization, management controls, and corrective action/financial assurance.  Management controls vary, those with the most impact include CCP classification, CCP volume restrictions in a mine, placement location of the CCP in the mine (backfill and monofill placement and above or below the water table).
8. Petrzrick, P.A. The Maryland Initiative to Use Coal Combustion Products to Reduce Acid Mine Drainage.  ABSTRACT:  In 1994, the Maryland Power Plant Research Program and the Maryland Bureau of Mines started a major initiative to conduct a series of projects using clean coal combustion products to reduce acid formation and the production of acid water in abandoned mines in Maryland.  The initial technical concept was to use the cementitious properties of FBC material and the flowability properties of fly ash to make a highly flowable grout that could: (1) be economically injected into mines; (2) would entomb mine debris and cover exposed pyritic surfaces; and (3) be more or less permanent as a low grade cement or artificial rock replacing coal that had been mined even two centuries earlier.  The initial technical demonstration was the Winding Ridge Project in which 5600 cubic yards of grout prepared from 100 percent mine water and coal combustion products was injected into the Frazee Mine in 1996.   Three years of monitoring at Winding Ridge proves that we have reduced acid formation in the mine and the grout is durable in the acid mine environment.  There have been no adverse impacts on ground water in the area.  Base on these initial observations, Maryland has decided to apply the principles learned to the largest source of acid mine drainage in Maryland, the massive Kempton Complex.  This paper presents an overview of the Maryland effort and a description of the strategy that is evolving for the utilization of coal combustion products to reduce one of our major historical environmental problems.
9. Rafalko, L.G. and P. Petzrick.  The Western Maryland Coal Combustion By-Products/Acid Mine Drainage Initiative/ The Winding Ridge Demonstration Project.   ABSTRACT:  In 1995, The Maryland Department of Natural Resources Power Plant Research Program (PPRP) and the Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE) initiated the Western Maryland CCB/AMD Initiative, which is a joint effort with private industry to demonstrate the beneficial application of CCB's to create flowable grouts to abate AMD.  This paper describes grout injection and post-injection monitoring results for the Winding Ridge Project, which was the Initiatives first demonstration project.  The site is a small, abandoned, deep coal mine.  In 1996, 5,600 cubic yards of CCB grout was injected into the mine.  The grout consisted of 60% FBC product, and 20% Class F fly ash and FGD product, mixed with mine water.  The free lime content of the FBC was about 5%.   Since 1996, post-injection monitoring has included the collection of grout cores for laboratory testing, and mine discharge water quality samples.  Post-injection monitoring has shown that the grout retained its strength.  Grout cores from the mine 12 months after injection showed unconfined compressive strengths above 1,000 psi, with little evidence of pitting.  Permeability was about 10(-8) to 10(-6) cm/sec. Immediately after injection, mine discharge showed elevated levels of calcium, sulfate, iron, aluminum, total acidity, and lower pH.   These changes are attributed in part to flushing acid waters from the mine during injection.  However, after about 1 year, iron, aluminum, and total acidity levels dropped to below pre-injection levels indicating that there has been some reduction in pyrite oxidation.  pH has also trended upward over this time.  Calcium and sulfate levels remain elevated indicating some grout dissolution. There has been no significant increase in trace element concentrations from pre- to post-injection conditions.
10. Stuart, B.J. Use of Flue Gas Desulfurization By-Product for Mine Sealing and Abatement of Acid Mine Drainage.  ABSTRACT:   Broken Aro mine is located on the Woodbury wildlife area, seven miles west of Cohocton, Ohio.  An abandoned underground mine complex last mined in 1910, this site forms the headwaters of the Simmons Run Watershed.  Acid mine drainage (AMD) from the underground mine complex has negatively impacted the water quality in Simmons Run.  Recent re-mining of coal reserves near the mine provided an opportunity to implement a control strategy to inhibit the AMD.  Re-mining allows recovery of an energy reserve, exposure of the AMD source, de-watering of the mine complex, and simple placement of a continuous mine seal.   The objective of a mine seal would be to inhibit the formation of acidic drainage by inundating the mine voids with groundwater.  Mine flooding forces out trapped air and thus minimizes the oxidation reaction responsible for AMD.  A continuous mine seal assures integrity of the hydraulic barrier and is effective for multiple openings.   Stabilized FGD scrubber by-product was chosen as the material for mine seal construction.  The low hydraulic conductivity would retain groundwater inside the mine and the high alkalinity could neutralize any generated acidity.  This paper will discuss the re-mining effort, FGD seal placement, and seal effectiveness.  Mine inundation is evaluated through water levels in monitoring wells and subsequent surface water quality monitoring is utilized to assess mine flooding effects on water quality both inside and outside of the underground mine complex.

Ordering info: Ms. Gretchen Tremoulet, University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, 2540 Research Park Drive, Lexington, KY 40511-8410. (606) 257-0355; FAX (606) 257-0360; e-mail gtremoulet@caer.uky.edu
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545

University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research. 1997. 1997 International Ash Utilization Symposium: Pushing the Envelope. October 20-22, 1997. Lexington, KY.

The symposium consisted of 10 sessions on topics including: (1) new products; (2) agricultural applications; (3) construction with ash; (4) environmental aspects; (5) concrete and cement; (6) durability issues of coal combustion by-products; (7) dry separation technology development workshop; (8) haulback/reclamation/remediation; (9) legal, regulatory, & economic issues; (10) high loss on ignition; and (11) chemistry and mineralogy.
Ordering info: Ms. Gretchen Tremoulet, University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, 2540 Research Park Drive, Lexington, KY 40511-8410. (606) 257-0355; FAX (606) 257-0360; e-mail gtremoulet@caer.uky.edu
Interlibrary Loan Request: Debbie McGinnis, Office of Surface Mining, 1999 Broadway, Denver, CO 80202-5733, (303) 844-1436, FAX (303) 844-1545